GPAT 2024 - Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test : Application Form, Exam Date, Eligibility, Syllabus and Exam Pattern

PHARMACEUTICS

Introduction to Physical Pharmacy

• Matter, Properties of Matter: State of matter, change in the state of matter, latent heat and vapor pressure, sublimation-critical point, Eutectic mixtures, gases, aerosols-inhalers, relative humidity, liquid. complexes, liquid crystals, glassy state, solids- crystalline, amorphous, and polymorphism.
• Micromeretics & Powder Rheology: Particle size and distribution, average particle size, number, and weight distribution, particle number, methods for determining particle volume, methods of determining particle size- optical microscopy, sieving, sedimentation; measurements of particle shape, specific surface area; methods for determining surface area; permeability, adsorption, derived properties of powders, porosity, packing arrangement, densities, bulkiness & flow properties.
• Surface & Interfacial Phenomenon: Liquid interface, surface, and interfacial tensions, surface free energy, measurement of surface and interfacial tensions, spreading coefficient, adsorption at liquid interfaces, surface-active agents, HLB classification, solubilization, detergency, adsorption at solid interfaces, solid-gas and solid-liquid interfaces, complex films, electrical properties of the interface.
• Viscosity & Rheology: Newtonian systems, Law of flow, kinematic viscosity, the effect of temperature; non-Newtonian systems: pseudoplastic, dilatant, plastic; thixotropy, thixotropy in the formulation, negative thixotropy, determination of viscosity, capillary, falling ball, rotational viscometers.

Dispersion Systems

• Colloidal dispersions: Definition, Types, properties of colloids, protective colloids, applications of colloids in pharmacy; Suspensions and Emulsions: Interfacial properties of suspended particles, settling in suspensions, the theory of sedimentation, the effect of Brownian motion, sedimentation of flocculated particles, sedimentation parameters, wetting of particles, controlled flocculation, flocculation in structured vehicles, rheological considerations; Emulsions-types, theories, physical stability.
• Complexation: Classification of complexes, methods of preparation and analysis, applications.
• Kinetics & Drug Stability: General considerations & concepts, half-life determination, Influence of temperature, light, solvent, catalytic species, and other factors, Accelerated stability study, expiration dating.

Importance of microbiology in pharmacy: Structure of bacterial cell; Classification of microbes and their taxonomy: Actinomycetes, bacteria, rickettsiae, spirochetes, and viruses;

Identification of Microbes:

• Stains and types of staining techniques, electron microscopy; Nutrition, cultivation, isolation of bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, viruses, etc; Microbial genetics and variation;
• Control of microbes by physical and chemical methods:
• Disinfection, factors influencing disinfectants, dynamics of disinfection, disinfectants and antiseptics and their evaluation;
• Sterilization: different methods, validation of sterilization methods & equipment; Sterility testing of all pharmaceutical products. Microbial assays of antibiotics, vitamins & amino acids.

Immunology and Immunological Preparations: Principles, antigens and haptens, immune system, cellular/humoral immunity, immunological tolerance, antigen-antibody reactions, and their applications. Hypersensitivity, active and passive immunization. Vaccines and sera: their preparation, standardization, and storage.

Genetic Recombination: Transformation, conjugation, transduction, protoplast fusion, and gene cloning and their applications. Development of hybridoma for monoclonal antibodies. Study of drugs produced by biotechnology such as Activase, Humulin, Humatrope, HB, etc;

Antibiotics: Historical development of antibiotics. Antimicrobial spectrum and methods used for their standardization. Screening of soil for organisms producing antibiotics, fermenter, its design, control of different parameters. Isolation of mutants, factors influencing the rate of mutation. Design of fermentation process. Isolation of fermentation products with special reference to penicillins, streptomycins tetracyclines, and vitamin B12.

Introduction to pharmaceutical jurisprudence & ethics

Pharmaceutical Legislations: A brief review; Drugs & Pharmaceutical Industry - A brief review; Pharmaceutical Education - A brief review;

An elaborate study of the following: Pharmaceutical Ethics; Drugs and Cosmetics; Medicinal & Toilet Preparations (Excise Duties); Narcotic Drugs & Psychotropic Substances; Drugs Price Control Order;

Introduction to dispensing and community pharmacy

• Prescription: Handling of prescription, the source of errors in prescription, care required in dispensing procedures including labeling of dispensed products. General dispensing procedures including labeling of dispensed products; Pharmaceutical calculations: Posology, calculation of doses for infants, adults, and elderly patients; Enlarging and reducing recipes percentage solutions, allegation, alcohol dilution, proof spirit, isotonic solutions, displacement value, etc;
• Principles involved & procedures adopted in dispensing of Typical prescriptions like mixtures, solutions, emulsions, creams, ointments, powders, capsules, pastes, jellies, suppositories, ophthalmic, pastilles, lozenges, pills, lotions, liniments, inhalations, paints sprays tablet triturates, etc;
• Incompatibilities: Physical and chemical incompatibilities, inorganic incompatibilities including incompatibilities of metals and their salts, non-metals, acids, alkalis, and organic incompatibilities. Purine bases, alkaloids, pyrazolone derivatives, amino acids, quaternary ammonium compounds, carbohydrates, glycosides, anesthetics, dyes, surface-active agents, correction of incompatibilities. Therapeutic incompatibilities;
• Community Pharmacy: Organization and structure of retail and wholesale drug store types of the drug store and design, legal requirements for the establishment, maintenance and drug store-dispensing of proprietary products, maintenance of records of retail and wholesale, patient counseling, the role of a pharmacist in community health care and education (First aid, communicable diseases, nutrition, family planning).
• Organization and Structure of hospital pharmacy: Organization of a hospital and hospital pharmacy, Responsibilities of a hospital pharmacist, Pharmacy and therapeutic committee, Budget preparation, and Implementation.

Hospital Formulary: Contents, preparation, and revision of hospital formulary.

• Drug Store Management and Inventory Control: Organization of the drug store, Types of materials stocked, storage conditions; Purchase and Inventory Control principles, purchase procedures, Purchase order, Procurement, and stocking;
• Drug distribution Systems in Hospitals: Out-patient dispensing, methods adopted; Dispensing of drugs to in-patients. Types of drug distribution systems. Charging policy, labeling; Dispensing of drugs to ambulatory patients; Dispensing of controlled drugs, Dispensing of ancillary supplies;
• Central Sterile Supply Unit & their Management: Types of materials for sterilization, Packing of materials prior to sterilization, sterilization equipment, Supply of sterile materials.
• Manufacture of Sterile and Non-sterile Products.
• Policymaking of manufacturable items, demand, and costing, personnel requirements, manufacturing practice, Master formula Card, production control, and manufacturing records.
• Drug Information Services: Sources of Information on drugs, disease, treatment schedules, procurement of information, Computerized services (e.g. MEDLINE), Retrieval of information, Medication error- types of medication errors, correction, and reporting. Records and Reports: Prescription filling, drug profile, patient medication profile, cases on drug interaction and adverse reactions, idiosyncratic cases. Pharmacoeconomics: Introduction to pharmacoeconomics, different methods of pharmacoeconomics, application of pharmacoeconomics. Pharmacoepidemiology: Definition and scope, the method to conduct pharmacoepidemiological studies, advantages & disadvantages of pharmacoepidemiological studies.

Nuclear Pharmacy: Methods of handling radioisotopes, radioisotope committee.

Importance of unit operations in manufacturing, Stoichiometry: Unit processes, Fluid Flow, Heat transfer, Evaporation, Distillation, Drying, Size Reduction, Mixing, Filtration and Centrifugation, Crystallization, Dehumidification, and Humidity Control, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning, The material of Construction, Material Handling Systems, Corrosion, Plant location, Industrial Hazards and Safety Precautions, and Automated Process Control Systems

Dosages Forms, designing & evaluation

• Liquid Dosages Forms: Introduction, types of additives used in formulations, vehicles, stabilizers, preservatives, suspending agents, emulsifying agents, solubilizers, colors, flavors, and others, manufacturing packaging, labeling, evaluation of clear liquids, suspensions, and emulsions official in pharmacopeia;
• Semisolid Dosage Forms: Definitions, types, mechanisms of drug penetration, factors influencing penetration, semisolid bases, and their selection. General formulation of semisolids, clear gels manufacturing procedure, evaluation, and packaging;
• Suppositories: Ideal requirements, bases, displacement value, manufacturing procedure, packaging, and evaluation;
• Extraction & Galenical Products: Principle and method of extraction, preparation of infusion, tinctures, dry and soft liquid extracts;
• Blood Products and Plasma Substitutes: Collection, processing, and storage of whole human blood, concentrated human RBCs, dried human plasma, human fibrinogen, human thrombin, human normal immunoglobulin, human fibrin, foam plasma substitutes, -ideal requirements, PVP, dextran, etc. for control of blood pressure as per I.P.;
• Pharmaceutical Aerosols: Definition, propellants, general formulation, manufacturing and packaging methods, pharmaceutical applications;
• Ophthalmic Preparations: Requirements, formulation, methods of preparation, labeling, containers, evaluation;
• Cosmetology and Cosmetic Preparations: Fundamentals of cosmetic science, structure, and functions of skin and hair. Formulation, preparation, and packaging of cosmetics for skin, hair, dentifrice, and manicure preparations like nail polish, nail polish remover, Lipsticks, eyelashes, baby care products, etc.
• Capsules: Advantages and disadvantages of capsule dosage form, material for the production of hard gelatin capsules, size of capsules, formulation, method of capsule filling, soft gelatin, capsule shell and capsule content, the importance of base absorption, and minimum/gm factors in soft capsules, quality control, stability testing and storage of capsule dosage forms.
• Micro-encapsulation: Types of microcapsules, the importance of microencapsulation in pharmacy, microencapsulation by phase separation, coacervation, multi-orifice, spray drying, spray congealing, polymerization complex emulsion, air suspension technique, coating pan and other techniques, evaluation of microcapsules.
• Tablets: Advantages and disadvantages of tablets, Application of different types of tablets, Formulation of different types of tablets, granulation, technology on large-scale by various techniques, different types of tablet compression machinery and the equipment employed, evaluation of tablets. Coating of Tablets: Types of coating, film-forming materials, formulation of a coating solution, equipment for coating, coating process, evaluation of coated tablets. Stability kinetics and quality assurance.
• Parenteral Products: Pre-formulation factors, routes of administration, water for injection, and sterile water for injection, pyrogenicity, non-aqueous vehicles, isotonicity and methods of its adjustment, Formulation details, Containers and closures and selection, labeling; Pre-filling treatment, washing of containers, and closures, preparation of solution and suspensions, filling and closing of ampoules, vials, infusion fluids, lyophilization & preparation of sterile powders, equipment for large-scale manufacture and evaluation of parenteral products; Aseptic Techniques-source of contamination and methods of prevention, Design of aseptic area, Laminar flow bench services and maintenance. Sterility testing of pharmaceuticals.
• Surgical products: Definition, primary wound dressing, absorbents, surgical cotton, surgical gauzes, etc., bandages, adhesive tape, protective cellulosic hemostatics, official dressings, absorbable and non-absorbable sutures, ligatures, and catguts. The packaging of Pharmaceutical Products: Packaging components, types, specifications and methods of evaluation, stability aspects of packaging. Packaging equipment, factors that influence the choice of containers, legal and official requirements for containers, and package testing.
• Designing of dosage forms: Pre-formulation studies, Study of physical properties of drug-like physical form, particle size, shape, density, wetting, dielectric constant. Solubility, dissolution, and organoleptic properties and their effect on the formulation, stability, and bioavailability. Study of chemical properties of drugs like hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, racemization, polymerization, etc., and their influence on the formulation and stability of products. Study of pro-drugs in solving problems related to stability, bioavailability, and elegance of formulations. Design, development, and process validation methods for pharmaceutical operations involved in the production of pharmaceutical products with special reference to tablets, and suspensions. Stabilization and stability testing protocol for various pharmaceutical products. ICH Guidelines for stability testing of formulations.
• Performance evaluation methods:
  In-vitro dissolution studies for solid dosage forms methods, interpretation of dissolution data. Bioavailability studies and bioavailability testing protocol and procedures. In vivo methods of evaluation and statistical treatment. GMP and quality assurance, Quality audit. Design, development, production, and evaluation of controlled/sustained/extended-release formulations.

Biopharmaceutics & Pharmacokinetics

• Introduction to biopharmaceutics: Passage of drugs across the biological barrier (passive diffusion, active transport, facilitated diffusion, ion-pair formation, and pinocytosis); Factors influencing absorption- biological, physicochemical, physiological, and pharmaceutical; Drug distribution in the body, plasma protein binding.
• Pharmacokinetics: Significance of plasma drug concentration measurement. Compartment model- Definition and Scope. Pharmacokinetics of drug absorption - Zero-order and first-order absorption rate constant using Wagner-Nelson and residual methods. The volume of distribution and distribution coefficient. Compartment kinetics- One compartment and two-compartment models. Determination of pharmacokinetic parameters from plasma and urine data after drug administration by the intravascular and oral route. Clearance concept, mechanism of renal clearance, clearance ratio, determination of renal clearance.
• Clinical Pharmacokinetics: Definition and scope: Dosage adjustment in patients with and without renal and hepatic failure; Design of single dose bio-equivalence study and relevant statistics; Pharmacokinetic drug interactions and their significance in combination therapy.
• Bioavailability and bioequivalence: Measures of bioavailability, Cmax, Tmax, Keli, and Area Under the Curve (AUC); Design of single-dose bioequivalence study and relevant statistics; Review of regulatory requirements for conducting bioequivalent studies. Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) of drugs.

PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY

Inorganic pharmaceutical & medicinal chemistry: Importance of inorganic compounds in pharmacy and medicine; An outline of methods of preparation uses, sources of impurities, tests for purity and identity, including limit tests for iron, arsenic, lead, heavy metals, chloride, Sulphate, and special tests if any, of the following classes of inorganic pharmaceuticals included in Indian Pharmacopoeia: Gastrointestinal Agents, Major Intra- and Extra-cellular Electrolytes, Essential and Trace Elements, Topical Agents, Gases and Vapors, Dental Products, Miscellaneous Agents, Pharmaceutical Aids Used in Pharmaceutical Industry, Acids, Bases, and Buffers, Inorganic Radiopharmaceuticals

Physical Chemistry and its Importance in Pharmacy

Importance of basic fundamentals of physical chemistry in the pharmacy: Behaviour of Gases, Kinetic theory of gases, deviation from ideal behavior and explanation;

• The Liquid State: Physical properties (surface tension, paracord, viscosity, refractive index, dipole moment);
• Solutions: Ideal and real solutions, solutions of gases in liquids, colligative properties, partition coefficient, conductance, and its measurement, Debye Huckel theory;
• Thermodynamics: First, Second and Third laws, Zeroth law, Concept of free energy, enthalpy, & entropy, absolute temperature scale;
• Thermochemical equations; Phase rule; Adsorption: Freundlich and Gibbs adsorption, isotherms, Langmuir’s theory of adsorption;
• Photochemistry: Consequences of light absorption, Jablonski diagram, Quantum efficiency;
• Chemical Kinetics: Zero, First and Second-order reactions, complex reactions, theories of reaction kinetics, characteristics of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis, acid-base and enzyme catalysis;
• Quantum Mechanics: Postulates of quantum mechanics, operators in quantum mechanics, the Schrodinger wave equation.
• Organic Chemistry and its importance in the pharmacy: Importance of fundamentals of organic chemistry in pharmaceutical sciences; Structure and Properties:
• Atomic structure, Atomic orbitals, Molecular orbital theory, wave equation, Molecular orbitals, Bonding, and Anti-bonding orbitals, Covalent bond, Hybrid orbitals, Intramolecular forces, Bond dissociation energy, Polarity of bonds, Polarity of molecules, Structure and physical properties, Intermolecular forces, Acids, and bases;
• Stereochemistry: Nomenclature, isomerism, stereoisomerism, conformational and configurational isomerism, optical activity, the specification of configuration, Reactions involving stereoisomers, chirality, conformations;
• Stereoselective & stereospecific reactions; Structure, Nomenclature, Preparation & Reactions of Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Cyclic analogs, Dienes, Benzene, Polynuclear aromatic compounds, Arenes, Alkyl halides, Alcohols, Ethers, Epoxides, Amines, Phenols, Aldehydes and ketones, Carboxylic acids, Functional derivatives of' carboxylic acids, a ß-Unsaturated carbonyl compounds, Reactive intermediates- carbocations, carbanions, carbenes, and nitrenes;
• Nucleophilic & Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Reactions: Reactivity and orientation; Electrophilic and Nucleophilic Addition Reactions; Rearrangements (Beckman, Hoffman, Benzilic acid, Pinacol-pinacolone, and Beyer-Villiger); Elimination reactions;
• Conservation of Orbital Symmetry and Rules: Electrocyclic, Cycloaddition, and Sigmatropic reactions; Neighboring group effects; Catalysis by transition metal complexes; Heterocyclic Compounds:

BIOCHEMISTRY

• Biochemistry in Pharmaceutical Sciences: The concept of free energy, Determination of change in free energy - from equilibrium constant and reduction potential, bioenergetics, production of ATP and its biological significance;
• Enzymes: Nomenclature, enzyme kinetics and their mechanism of action, mechanism of inhibition, enzymes, and iso-enzymes in clinical diagnosis;
• Co-enzymes: Vitamins as co-enzymes and their significance. Metals as cofactors and their significance; Carbohydrate Metabolism: Conversion of polysaccharides to glucose-1-phosphate, Glycolysis, fermentation and their regulation, Gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, Metabolism of galactose and galactosemia, Role of sugar nucleotides in biosynthesis, and Pentose phosphate pathway;
• The Citric Acid Cycle: Significance, reactions and energetics of the cycle, Amphibolic role of the cycle, and Glyoxalic acid cycle;
• Lipids Metabolism: Oxidation of fatty acids, ß-oxidation & energetics, biosynthesis of ketone bodies and their utilization, biosynthesis of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, Control of lipid metabolism, Essential fatty acids & eicosanoids (prostaglandins, thromboxanes, & leukotrienes), phospholipids, & sphingolipids, Biosynthesis of eicosanoids, cholesterol, androgens, progesterone, estrogens corticosteroids, & bile acids;
• Biological Oxidation: Redox-potential, enzymes, and co-enzymes involved in oxidation-reduction & its control, The respiratory chain, its role in energy capture and its control, the energetics of oxidative phosphorylation. Inhibitors of the respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation, Mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation;
• Metabolism of ammonia and nitrogen-containing monomers: Nitrogen balance, Biosynthesis of amino acids, Catabolism of amino acids, Conversion of amino acids to specialized products, Assimilation of ammonia, Urea. cycle, metabolic disorders of the urea cycle, Metabolism of Sulphur-containing amino acids;
• Purine biosynthesis: Purine nucleotide inter-conversions;
• Pyrimidine biosynthesis: and formation of deoxyribonucleotides;

Biosynthesis of Nucleic Acids: Brief introduction of the genetic organization of the mammalian genome, alteration and rearrangements of genetic material, Biosynthesis of DNA and its replications;

Mutation

• Physical & chemical mutagenesis/carcinogenesis, DNA repair mechanism. Biosynthesis of RNA;
• Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis:
• The genetic code, Components of protein synthesis, and inhibition of protein synthesis.

Medicinal Chemistry

Basic Principles

• Physico-chemical and stereoisomeric (Optical, geometrical) aspects of drug molecules and biological action, Bioisosterism, Drug-receptor interactions including transduction mechanisms;
• Drug metabolism and Concept of Prodrugs; Principles of Drug Design (Theoretical Aspects): Synthetic Procedures, Mode of Action, Uses, Structure-Activity Relationships including Physicochemical Properties of the Following Classes of Drugs:
• Drugs acting at synaptic and neuroeffector junction sites: Cholinergic, anticholinergics and cholinesterase inhibitors, Adrenergic drugs, Antispasmodic and anti-ulcer drugs, Local Anesthetics, Neuromuscular blocking agents;

Autacoids: Antihistamines, Eicosanoids, Analgesic-antipyretics, Anti-inflammatory (non-steroidal) agents.

Steroidal Drugs: Steroidal nomenclature (IUPAC) & stereochemistry, Androgens and anabolic agents, Estrogens and Progestational agents, Oral contraceptives, Adrenocorticoids;

Drugs Acting on the Central Nervous System: General Anesthetics, Hypnotics, and Sedatives, Anticonvulsants, Anti-Parkinsonian drugs, Psychopharmacological agents (Neuroleptics, Anti-depressants, Anxiolytics), Opioid analgesics, Antitussives, CNS stimulants;

Diuretics; Cardiovascular Drugs

• Anti-hypertensives, Anti-arrhythmic agents, anti-anginal agents, Cardiotonics, Anti-hypolipidemic agents, Anticoagulants, and Anti-platelet drugs;
• Thyroid and Antithyroid drugs; Insulin and oral hypoglycemic agents;
• Chemotherapeutic Agents used in bacterial, fungal, viral, protozoal, parasitic, and other infections, Antibiotics: ß-Lactam, macrolides, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, polypeptide antibiotics, fluoroquinolones

Anti-metabolites

• (including sulfonamides); Anti-neoplastic agents; Anti-viral agents (including anti–HIV);
• Immunosuppressives and immunostimulants; Diagnostic agents; Pharmaceutical Aids; Microbial Transformations:
• Introduction, types of reactions mediated by micro-organisms, the design of biotransformation processes, selection of organisms, biotransformation process and its improvements with special reference to steroids;

Enzyme Immobilization

• Techniques of immobilization, factors affecting enzyme kinetics, Study of enzymes such as hyaluronidase, penicillinase, streptokinase, amylases, and proteases, Immobilization of bacteria and plant cells.
• Different techniques of pharmaceutical analysis, Preliminaries, and definitions:
• Significant figures, Rules for retaining significant digits, Types of errors, Mean deviation, Standard deviation, Statistical treatment of small data sets, Selection of sample, Precision, and accuracy,

Pharmaceutical Analysis: Fundamentals of volumetric analysis: methods of expressing concentration, primary and secondary standards:

Acid-Base Titrations: Acid-base concepts, Role of solvents, Relative strengths of acids and bases, Ionization, Law of mass action, Common ion effect, an Ionic product of water, pH, Hydrolysis of salts, Henderson-Hasselbach equation, Buffer solutions, Neutralization curves, Acid-base indicators, Theory of indicators, Choice of indicators, Mixed indicators, Polyprotic systems, Polyamine and amino acid systems, Amino acid titrations;

Oxidation-Reduction Titrations: Concepts of oxidation and reduction, Redox reactions, Strengths and equivalent weights of oxidizing and reducing agents, Theory of redox titrations, Redox indicators, Cell representations, Measurement of electrode potential, Oxidation-reduction curves, Iodimetry and Iodometry, Titrations involving ceric ammonium sulfate, potassium iodate, potassium bromate, potassium permanganate; titanous chloride, stannous chloride, and Sodium 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol;

Precipitation Titrations: Precipitation reactions, Solubility product, Effect of acids, temperature, and solvent upon the solubility of a precipitate, Argentometric titrations and titrations involving ammonium or potassium thiocyanate, mercuric nitrate, and barium Sulphate, indicators, Methods of endpoint determination (Gay-Lussac method, Mohr’s method, Volhard's method, and Fagan's method).

Gravimetric Analysis: Precipitation techniques, The colloidal state, Supersaturation, Co-precipitation, Post-precipitation, Digestion, washing of the precipitate, Filtration, Filter papers and crucibles, Ignition, Thermogravimetric curves, Specific examples like barium Sulphate, Aluminium as Aluminium oxide, calcium as calcium oxalate, and magnesium as magnesium pyrophosphate, Organic precipitants;

Non-aqueous Titrations

• Acidic and basic drugs, Solvents used, Indicators;
• Complexometric titrations;
• Complexing agents used as titrants, Indicators, Masking, and demasking;

Miscellaneous Methods of Analysis, Extraction procedures including separation of drugs from excipients; Potentiometry, Conductometry, Coulometry, Polarography, Amperometry, Chromatography, The Theoretical Aspects, Basic Instrumentation, Elements of Interpretation of Spectra, and Applications (quantitative and qualitative) of the Following Analytical Techniques, Quality Assurance

PHARMACOLOGY

Pathophysiology of common diseases; Basic Principles of Cell Injury and Adaptations: Causes of Cellular injury, pathogenesis, the morphology of cell injury, adaptations, and cell death.

Basic Mechanisms involved in the process of inflammation and repair: Vascular and cellular events of acute inflammation, chemical mediators of inflammation, the pathogenesis of chronic inflammation, and a brief outline of the process of repair.

Immunopathophysiology: T and B cells, MHC proteins, antigen-presenting cells, immune tolerance, the pathogenesis of hypersensitivity reactions, autoimmune diseases, AIDS, and Amyloidosis.

Pathophysiology of Common Diseases: Asthma, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, gout, ulcerative colitis, neoplasia, psychosis, depression, mania, epilepsy, acute and chronic renal failure, hypertension, angina, congestive heart failure, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, peptic ulcer, anemias, hepatic disorders, tuberculosis, urinary tract infections, and sexually transmitted diseases. Wherever applicable the molecular basis should be discussed.

Fundamentals of general pharmacology: Dosage forms and routes of administration, mechanism of action, the combined effect of drugs, factors modifying drug action, tolerance, and dependence; Pharmacogenetics; Principles of Basic and Clinical pharmacokinetics, absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion of drugs, Adverse Drug Reactions; Bioassay of Drugs and Biological Standardization; Discovery and development of new drugs, Bioavailability and bioequivalence studies;

Pharmacology of the Peripheral Nervous System: Neurohumoral transmission (autonomic and somatic), Parasympathomimetics, Parasympatholytics, Sympathomimetics, Adrenergic receptor, and neuron blocking agents, Ganglion stimulants and blocking agents, Neuromuscular Blocking Agents, Local anesthetic Agents.

Pharmacology of Central Nervous System: Neurohumoral transmission in the C.N.S., General Anesthetics, Alcohols and disulfiram, Sedatives, Hypnotics, Anti-anxiety agents and Centrally acting muscle relaxants, Psychopharmacological agents (anti-psychotics), anti-maniacs and hallucinogens, Antidepressants, Anti-epileptics drugs, Anti-Parkinsonian drugs, Analgesics, Antipyretics, Narcotic analgesics and antagonists, C.N.S. stimulants, Drug Addiction and Drug Abuse.

Pharmacology of Cardiovascular System: Drugs used in the management of congestive cardiac failure, Antihypertensive drugs, Anti-anginal and Vasodilator drugs, including calcium channel blockers and beta-adrenergic antagonists, Anti-arrhythmic drugs, Anti-hypolipidemic drugs, Drugs used in the therapy of shock.

Drugs Acting on the Hemopoietic System: Hematinics, Anticoagulants, Vitamin K and hemostatic agents, Fibrinolytic and anti-platelet drugs, Blood and plasma volume expanders.

Drugs acting on the Urinary system: Fluid and electrolyte balance, Diuretics.

Autacoids: Histamine, Antihistaminic drugs, 5-HT- its agonists and antagonists, Prostaglandins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes, Angiotensin, Bradykinin, and Substance P and other vasoactive peptides, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory and anti-gout agents.

Drugs Acting on the Respiratory System: Anti-asthmatic drugs including bronchodilators, Antitussives and expectorants, and Respiratory stimulants.

Drugs acting on the Gastrointestinal Tract: Antacids, Anti-secretory and Anti-ulcer drugs, Laxatives and anti-diarrhoeal drugs, Appetite Stimulants and Suppressants, and Emetics and anti-emetics, Miscellaneous: Carminatives, demulcents, protectives, adsorbents, astringents, digestants, enzymes and mucolytics.

Pharmacology of Endocrine System: Hypothalamic and pituitary hormones, Thyroid hormones and antithyroid drugs, parathormone, calcitonin, Vitamin D, Insulin, glucagon, incretins, oral hypoglycemic agents, and insulin analogs, ACTH and corticosteroids, Androgens and anabolic steroids, Estrogens, progesterone, and oral contraceptives, Drugs acting on the uterus.

Chemotherapy: General Principles of Chemotherapy, Bacterial resistance; Sulfonamides and cotrimoxazole, Antibiotics- Penicillins, Cephalosporins, Aminoglycosides, Chloramphenicol, Macrolides, Tetracyclines, Quinolones, fluoroquinolones, and Miscellaneous antibiotics; Chemotherapy of tuberculosis, leprosy, fungal diseases, viral diseases, HIV and AIDS, urinary tract infections and sexually transmitted diseases, malaria, amoebiasis, and other protozoal infections and Anthelmintics. Chemotherapy of malignancy and immunosuppressive agents.

Principles of Toxicology: Definition of poison, general principles of treatment of poisoning with particular reference to barbiturates, opioids, organophosphorus and atropine poisoning, Heavy metals, and heavy metal antagonists.

Basic Concepts of Pharmacotherapy: Clinical Pharmacokinetics and individualization of Drug therapy, Drug delivery systems, and their Biopharmaceutic & Therapeutic considerations, Drugs used during infancy and in the elderly persons (Pediatrics & Geriatrics), Drugs used during pregnancy, Drug-induced diseases.

Important Disorders of Organs, Systems, and Their Management

• Cardio-vascular disorders- Hypertension, Congestive heart failure, Angina, Acute myocardial infarction, Cardiac Arrhythmias.
• CNS Disorders: Epilepsy, Parkinsonism, Schizophrenia,
• Depression Respiratory disease- Asthma.
• Gastrointestinal Disorders- Peptic ulcer, Ulcerative colitis, Hepatitis, Cirrhosis.
• Endocrine Disorders- Diabetes mellitus and Thyroid disorders.

• Infectious Diseases: Tuberculosis, Urinary tract infections, Enteric infections, Upper respiratory infections. Hematopoietic Disorders- Anemias
• Joint and Connective tissue disorders: Rheumatic diseases, Gout, and Hyperuricemia.
• Neoplastic Diseases: Acute Leukaemias, Hodgkin's disease. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, Concept of Essential Drugs and Rational Drug use.

PHARMACOGNOSY

Sources of Drugs

• Biological, marine, mineral, and plant tissue cultures as sources of drugs;
• Classification of Drugs: Morphological, taxonomical, chemical, and pharmacological classification of drugs;
• Study of medicinally important plants belonging to the families with special reference to: Apocynaceae, Solanaceae, Rutaceae, Umbelliferae, Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Liliaceae, Graminae, Labiatae, Cruciferae, Papaveraceae;

Cultivation, Collection, Processing, and Storage of Crude Drugs: Factors influencing cultivation of medicinal plants, Types of soils, and fertilizers of common use. Pest management and natural pest control agents, Plant hormones and their applications, Polyploidy, mutation, and hybridization with reference to medicinal plants.

Quality Control of Crude Drugs: Adulteration of crude drugs and their detection by organoleptic, microscopic, physical, chemical, and biological methods and properties.

Introduction to Active Constituents of Drugs: Their isolation, classification, and properties.

Systematic pharmacognostic study of the followings: Carbohydrates and derived products, Lipids, Resins, Tannins, Volatile Oils, Phytochemical Screening, and Fibers 

GLYCOSIDE CONTAINING DRUGS

Saponins:

• Liquorice, ginseng, Dioscorea, sarsaparilla, and senega.
• Cardioactive glycosides: Digitalis, squill, strophanthus and Thevetia

Anthraquinone cathartics: Aloe, senna, rhubarb and cascara,

Others: Psoralea, Ammi Majus, Ammi Visnaga, gentian, saffron, Chirata, quassia.

ALKALOID CONTAINING DRUGS

Pyridine-Piperidine, Tropane, Quinoline and Isoquinoline, Indole, Imidazole, Steroidal, Alkaloidal Amine, Glycoalkaloid, and Purines

Studies of Traditional Drugs: Common vernacular names, botanical sources, morphology, chemical nature of chief constituents, pharmacology, categories, and common uses and marketed formulations of following indigenous drugs.

General Techniques of Biosynthetic Studies and Basic Metabolic Pathways/Biogenesis: A brief introduction to the biogenesis of secondary metabolites of pharmaceutical importance. Terpenes, Carotenoids, Glycosides, Alkaloids, Lignans, quassinoids, and flavonoids, Role of plant-based drugs in the National economy

Plant Tissue Culture: Historical development of plant tissue culture, types of cultures, nutritional requirements, growth, and maintenance. Applications of plant tissue culture in pharmacognosy.

Marine Pharmacognosy: Novel medicinal agents from marine sources: Natural allergens and photosensitizing agents and fungal toxins. Herbs as healthy foods. Herbal cosmetics. Standardization and quality control of herbal drugs, WHO guidelines for the standardization of herbal drugs.

Subjects

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